Research Articles: Anticipatory Skills and/or How Environmental Complexity Challenges Performance

1. Response to Environmental Stressors:
Cardiovascular Arousal in Individuals With Autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (2008). 38:1485-1498.

Authors: Matthew S. Goodwin, June G. Groden, Wayne F. Velicer, Lewis P. Lipsitt, M. Grace Baron, Stefan G., Hofmann, and Gerald Groden

Purpose: To compare arousal responses to the presentation of potentially stressful situations in five persons with autism and five age and sex matched typically developing individuals using heart rate as a measure of sympathetic activity.

Hypothesis: Based on arousal modulation theories of autism and on co-morbid presence of anxiety in individuals with autism, it was hypothesized that this group would demonstrate increased cardiovascular responses to environmental stressors than the control group.

Results: Research data indicated findings that were opposite to the responses hypothesized. The individuals in the autism group showed significant responses to environmental stressors only 22% of the time while the control group showed significant responses 60% of the time. Although it appears that the individuals in the autism group demonstrated a decreased response comparatively, it is important to note that their basal heart rate was nearly 20 beats per minute higher than the control group during baseline readings and during stressful situations. This suggests that the autism group was either overly stimulated by the testing situation (although great lengths were taken to control arousal by the testing environment and by other variables like medications that can influence autonomic responses) or that they are in a general state of “autonomic defensiveness” to begin with.

Important Points to Consider: If individuals with autism are indeed, in a continual state of overarousal, it will be important to address this through stress reduction techniques and relaxation techniques as a preparatory measure before implementing behavioral and academic instructions.

2. Sensory Processing and Environment:
Sensory Processing and Classroom Emotional, Behavioral, and Educational Outcomes in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder. American Journal of Occupational Therapy (2008). 62(5): 564-573.

Authors: Jill Ashburner, Jenny Ziviani, Sylvia Rodger

Purpose:
* To confirm previous research findings that children with ASD respond differently to sensory input than typically developing peers.
* To explore the relationship between sensory processing in children with and without ASD and their classroom emotional, behavioral, and educational outcomes.

Results:
A. Significant differences between groups on the Short Sensory Profile, with the exception of movement sensitivity, confirmed previous findings that children with ASD respond to sensory input differently than typically developing peers.
B. Factors related to classroom outcomes:
* Typically Developing Group: only association was between IQ and academic performance.
* ASD Group:
Underresponsiveness/Seeks sensation and auditory filtering negatively impacted academic performance and attention to cognitive tasks.
High levels of tactile sensitivity were associated with a range of attention difficulties, including inattention and hyperactivity.

Points to Consider: Due to auditory filtering difficulty effecting functional engagement in classroom, amplification of teacher voice and improvement to classroom acoustics should be investigated. Due to tactile sensitivity leading to inattentiveness and distractability in classroom, measures to decrease tactile input should be explored, like positioning these children further away from their classmates. Other suggestion indicated in the article include: enhancing instructions (i.e. visual strategies, voice amplification) while minimizing competing input; increasing the predictability of activities; and providing information at a reduced pace.

3. Interventions to Increase Anticipation:
Teaching On-Task and On-Schedule Behaviors to High Functioning Children With Autism Via Picture Activity Schedules. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (2000). 30(6): 553-567.

Authors: Linley Bryan & David Gast

Purpose: To evaluate the effectiveness of a graduated guidance and visual activity schedule in teaching children with autism on-task and on-schedule behaviors and to determine if on-task and on-schedule behaviors generalize to novel activities.

Results: Findings support the use of a picture schedule with children who have high functioning autism. It supported previous research findings in that: students learned the mechanics of a picture schedule using graduated guidance which was easily faded; students learned high levels of independent on-task and on-structured behavior with the use of the picture book alone; high levels of on-task behavior with appropriate scheduled materials correlated with a decrease in nonscheduled behaviors: and generalization to novel activities was achieved with minimal or no extra training.

Points to Consider: The effective use of picture schedules throughout the day as well as their effectiveness in dealing with transitions/aiding in decreasing the stress of unpredictability should be examined.

4. Interventions to Decrease Anxiety and Arousal Commonly Associated with Environmental Stimulation
Behavioral and Physiological Effects of Deep Pressure on Children With Autism: A Pilot Study Evaluating the Efficacy of Grandin’s Hug Machine. American Journal of Occupational Therapy (1998). 53(2): 145-152.

Authors: Stephen M. Edelson, Meredyth Goldberg Edelson, David C. R. Kerr, Temple Grandin

Purpose: To investigate the effects of deep pressure on arousal and anxiety reduction in autism with Grandin’s Hug Machine, a device that allows self-administration of lateral body pressure.

Results: The children who received deep pressure demonstrated a significant decrease on the Tension scale and a marginally significant decrease on the more general Anxiety scale. The Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), which measured physiological changes, showed greater benefits in the children who had the highest initial levels of physiological arousal.

Points to Consider: Incorporating deep pressure activities into daily activities and offering deep pressure pictures to choose from as a means to calm the nervous system may be effective in promoting an homeostatic level of arousal for improved participation in social situations and learning.